LONDON, U.K.: Autonomous taxis are preparing to enter London's streets, but the city's iconic black cab drivers are questioning whether robotaxis can navigate its tangled roads or win over passengers.

A Ford Mustang Mach-E operated by British startup Wayve Technologies recently maneuvered through congested North London traffic, avoiding cyclists, pedestrians, and roadwork during a demonstration ahead of government-backed robotaxi trials set to begin in the spring. Companies, including Waymo from the United States and China's Baidu, are also planning to participate, making London the latest battleground in the global race to deploy self-driving taxis.

London presents unique challenges. Its road network, shaped over centuries and dating back to Roman times, lacks the orderly grid found in U.S. cities like San Francisco and Phoenix, where Waymo already operates. The capital is also among the world's most congested cities, with streets crowded by buses, scooters, bicycles, and pedestrians. Unlike in many countries, jaywalking is not illegal in Britain.

Self-driving taxis are "a solution looking for a problem," said Steven McNamara, general secretary of the Licensed Taxi Drivers' Association.

He questioned whether robotaxis would have any advantage on London's complex streets.

"It's virtually impossible to drive anywhere (in London) without somebody walking in front of you," McNamara said. In a city of nearly 10 million people, he asked, "How are these cars going to deal with those volumes of people?"

London's black cab drivers must pass "The Knowledge," a rigorous test requiring years of memorizing routes. They have previously protested against technology disrupting their industry, including ride-hailing services such as Uber.

Robotaxi companies argue there is space for new options.

"I think Londoners are going to love autonomous driving. It's going to be another choice alongside the Tube, cycling, walking," said Wayve CEO Alex Kendall.

Wayve is partnering with Uber for the trials, part of Britain's effort to introduce national regulations for self-driving vehicles. Baidu is also working with Uber and Lyft to operate its Apollo Go service in the pilot program. Waymo, owned by Google parent Alphabet, plans to launch a passenger service in London by the third quarter of 2026.

"We're not here to replace anyone," said Waymo spokesman Ethan Teicher. "We're here to add another option for people who will choose to take black cabs or other modes of transportation when it suits them and choose to take Waymo when it makes sense."

Waymo's Jaguar I-Pace vehicles and Wayve's Mustangs have been spotted conducting test drives, with human backup drivers ready to intervene.

During a recent three-mile (five-kilometer) demonstration for The Associated Press, Wayve's vehicle handled traffic smoothly, maintaining 19 miles per hour (30 kilometers per hour) on open roads. The only jolt came when a traffic light changed suddenly, prompting a firm brake.

Kendall said Wayve differs from traditional approaches by avoiding reliance on high-definition maps and hand-coded rules. Instead, its system is trained on millions of hours of driving data.

"This is the key thing for self-driving, because every time you drive on the road, you're going to experience something different," Kendall said. "You can't rely on a self-driving car being told how to behave in every scenario it encounters."

Wayve has positioned itself as a technology supplier, signing a deal with Nissan to build autonomous cars for sale in Japan and North America by 2027. Pricing details for the London service were not disclosed. Waymo said its fares will be "competitive" and in line with market rates, though it may "demand more premium pricing."

Experts say robotaxis could fill specific gaps in Britain's transport system, particularly in rural areas where bus services have been cut.

"If you find a cab driver who knows the area, you can ask him questions. You feel confident and comfortable you're going where you need to go," said Kevin Vincent of Coventry University, noting that such personal service may not be easily replaced.

Frank O'Beirne, a black cab driver for 14 years, recently recalled escorting two blind passengers across Leicester Square to a basement restaurant they would not have found on their own.

"They would never have found that, ever, (on their own)," O'Beirne said. "There's nothing like us. I can't see the space where autonomous taxis can operate, really."